The Changing Profile of Volunteerism – Implications for Community and Voluntary Organisations at local level

Chapter 2 Literature Review

In this Literature Review, I will discuss the significance of volunteerism and the valuable contribution it can make to society, socially and economically. This will include an examination of the concept of social capital and an illustration of how volunteerism contributes to the development of social capital. It will also include an analysis of the monetary value of volunteering to the Irish economy. I will also look at the present context for volunteering in Ireland using a number of sources including the Irish Government White Paper, “Supporting Voluntary Activity”, the findings of the National Committee on Volunteering, the legacy of the Special Olympics World Games, 2003 and the UN Year of the Volunteer 2001. Finally, I will look at existing literature on the nature of volunteerism in Ireland. The principal sources I will use are the National College of Ireland Surveys on Volunteering, (Ruddle & O’Connor, 1993, Ruddle & Mulvihill, 1995, 1999).

As we have already seen from the definitions adopted for the purposes of this research study, volunteering makes a significant contribution to society, in fact it is key to the promotion of active citizenship and is an essential component of a democratic society. Essential community and social services are provided through voluntary activity. People are encouraged to use their time in a constructive fashion through voluntary activity. Indeed for many people, voluntary activity, through meals on wheels, informal social contact from neighbours, etc, has made a huge difference to their quality of life.

There are two main types of volunteering: formal, (within an organisational setting) and informal, (one-to-one help). Both types are essential, but research and policy development to date has focused primarily on formal volunteering. Williams, in his report on the 2001 UK Home Office Citizenship Survey, highlights some policy issues arising from a failure to recognise and examine informal voluntary activity to the same extent. According to the Home Office Citizenship Survey, participation in informal volunteering is significantly more widespread than engagement in formal volunteering, (William, 2001, p.287). The study also found that informal volunteering is higher in disadvantaged areas than formal volunteering, with less than a third of the population in deprived areas involved in formal voluntary activity. This implies that formal volunteering is more characteristic of volunteering culture in affluent areas than disadvantaged. By concentrating on providing supports to the formal volunteer sector while ignoring informal volunteering, we are in danger of excluding the volunteer culture of disadvantaged areas, and its citizens from society further.

The concept of social capital offers an explanation as to why volunteering has such a central role to play in a civil society. Social capital has received considerable attention at national and international level in recent times. Social capital refers to “networks together with shared norms, values and understandings that can facilitate co-operation within or among groups” (OECD, 2001). Furthermore social capital acts like a “social glue or lubricating agent in association with other forms of resources” (NESF, 2003, p.21). A more practical application of the definition of social capital at local level, can be found in the Cork County Community and Voluntary Report, 2003 which refers to social capital as: “The concept of social capital sounds abstract, but it couldn’t be simpler, do you trust people? How many clubs, societies or social groups are you a member of? If your child gets sick do you have supports to call on? Basically how much social contact do you have in your life? These social ties, according to research will help you to live longer and are probably worth money to the economy” (Cork CDB, 2003).

The basic premise is that interaction enables people to build communities, to knit social fabric and to commit to each other. Beem, 1999 argues that a sense of belonging and a concrete experience of social networks (and the relationships of trust and tolerance that can be involved) can bring great benefits to people:

“Trust between individuals thus becomes trust between strangers and trust of a broad fabric of social institutions; ultimately, it becomes a shared set of values, virtues and expectations within society as a whole. Without this interaction, on the other hand, trust decays; at a certain point, this decay begins to manifest itself in serious social problems… The concept of social capital contends that building or rebuilding community and trust requires face-to-face encounters. (Beem, 1999, p20)

Robert Putnam, in his book “Bowling Alone: The collapse and revival of American community” believed that social capital refers to connections between individuals, their networks and norms. He argued that one-to-one contact between individuals was not enough. If a society is to be rich in social capital requires people to be part of community and voluntary organisations. He found that there had been a significant decline in the active membership of associations, such as community groups, PTA’s, etc and a corresponding increase in individualised leisure activities. The example Putnam gives is that there has been a drop in the number of people involved in team bowling leagues and a growth in individual bowling, hence the title of his book: “Bowling Alone ..). The result of this is that social capital is weakened.

The Borrie Report, 1994, clearly highlights the link between social capital and volunteerism. The report states that social capital comprises

“the institutional relationships of a vibrant civil society, based on solitary individualism and active citizenship, from extended families to neighbourhood networks, community groups to religious organisations, youth clubs to parent-teacher associations, local businesses to local public services, playgroups to the police on the beat” (Borrie, 1994, p.307-8)

According to the NESF Report, “The Policy Implications of Social Capital”, there are a number of other key dimensions in addition to volunteering to social capital, including community engagement, community efficacy, political participation, informal sociability, norms of trust and reciprocity, trust in institutions and informal social support networks. (NESF, 2003, p.3). Social capital has an important role to play in the promotion of active citizenship and a civil society and is one resource that can be used in support of community development and social inclusion. Supporting volunteerism at local level, formal and informal, will be key to the effective development of an active society.

It is early days in terms of the promotion of social capital in Ireland, however the Government has stated its commitment to strengthen the knowledge base for more effective public policy support in the area of social capital. The Agreed Programme for Government (Fianna Fail and Progressive Democrats, 2002) under the heading of “Building and Inclusive Society” states

“We will fund an ambitious programme of data gathering on social indicators, including consistent poverty and social capital, to ensure that policies are developed on the basis of sound information. We will work to promote social capital in all parts of Irish life through a combination of research and ensuring that public activity supports the development of social capital, particularly on a local community level”.

The commitment at National level to the development of social capital is further evident in the National Anti-Poverty Strategy, whose key aim is to “develop social capital – particularly for disadvantaged communities”. The White Paper on Volunteering, also outlines the commitment to research on social capital. This will help to quantify the full extent of voluntary and community activity in Ireland and its true contribution to economic and social development at national level.

The voluntary and community sector in Ireland is large and makes a significant contribution to the Irish Economy every year. According to Donoghue et al, 1999, p.63, volunteers were worth €5 million to the Irish economy in 1995. This figure was calculated by applying the average industrial wage to the hours put in by volunteers within an organisational setting. Donoghue estimated that this figure would almost double to €1 billion, if applied to volunteers involved in informal volunteering (Op. cit., p.75).

Work carried out by the Institute for Volunteering Research in the UK, states that voluntary work contributes resources worth approximately £41 billion sterling a year The Institute also highlights that although volunteering is not cost-free, it is extremely cost-effective. The Institute suggests that for every £1 sterling spent on volunteers by the government, there is a nominal return of some £40. Furthermore, The Volunteer Investment and Value Audit carried out at Loughborough University showed that for every £1 sterling invested by organisations, there is a return of £4.50 sterling in the value of voluntary work generated, (National Centre for Volunteering, 19). These figures highlight the excellent value for money to be gained as a result of investing funds in the community and voluntary sector.

The Government White Paper “Supporting Voluntary Activity” is the most important national document to offer support to the smaller community and voluntary groups. The purpose of this White Paper is to establish a policy framework and to provide a range of supports to the community and voluntary sector across a number of Government Departments and Agencies. One of the most significant actions as set out in the White Paper for the target group of this research study is the provision of financial support for the Community and Voluntary Fora with an annual allocation of €1.27 million. This equates to a €25,000 annual budget allocation for the County Carlow Community Network. Other key actions set out include, a formal recognition of the role of the community and voluntary sector, new mechanisms for consultation with the community and voluntary sector, the establishment of Voluntary Activity Units in certain Government Departments, multi-annual funding for agreed prioriy services and a commitment from the Government to follow up on all decisions in the White Paper. A total of €8.8 million was allocated to support existing National Networks, the Community and Voluntary Fora and to fund a comprehensive research programme to quantify the full extent of voluntary activity in Ireland, its contribution to social development, to employment and to the economy.

Other significant developments that have influenced volunteering in Ireland, include activities that occurred during the United Nations Year of the Volunteer in 2001, the formation of the National Committee on Volunteering and Ireland as host country to the World Special Olympics in 2003. The UN Year of the Volunteer was aimed at increasing recognition, facilitation, networking and promotion of volunteering worldwide. The decision by the UN to proclaim 2001 as the Year of the Volunteer has helped to put volunteering firmly on the agenda of its constituent countries. Ireland signed up to the UN Year of the Volunteer, and in doing so the Government made the decision to celebrate volunteerism in Ireland, look at where volunteering is going and to strengthen, support and recognise volunteering in Ireland for the future. The National Programme for Prosperity and Fairness provided for the establishment of a National Committee on Volunteering, to develop and co-ordinate a range of initiatives to celebrate this event. The Committee also commissioned fives pieces of research relating to volunteering in Ireland. These combined with a wide consultation process, formed the basis for the development of the Report “Tipping the Balance: Report and Recommendations to Government on Supporting and Developing Volunteering in Ireland”.

This report made a number of core recommendations on the future of volunteering in Ireland. These recommendations include the development of a national policy on volunteering and that a volunteering support and development infrastructure be established and funded nationally. The report suggests that an integrated national policy be developed with specific strategies covering the following issues supporting volunteering, regulating and protecting volunteering, developing and promoting volunteering, addressing barriers to volunteering, targeting volunteering and the image of volunteering. The Report also stresses the importance of establishing a programme of research on volunteering and voluntary activity, and the ongoing collection of data on volunteering through the Census and Quarterly Household Budget Surveys. The second main recommendation to establish a volunteering support and development infrastructure highlights the importance of establishing a National Centre for Volunteering and Local Volunteer Centres. The existing infrastructure in Ireland is very underdeveloped. “Tipping the Balance” seeks the address this by suggesting practical solutions as to how this issue can be addressed.

The World Special Olympics in Ireland in 2003 highlighted the role of the volunteer in an unprecedented fashion. 30,000 people volunteered to assist with the running of this event. For every volunteer opportunity that arose, there were three applicants. It was the single biggest voluntary event ever hosted in Ireland.

There is substantial anecdotal evidence available as to how increasingly hard it is becoming to get people to volunteer in their community, be it with youth and sport clubs, environmental groups or other activities. However, this is not currently backed up with reliable and comparable data gathered over time. The principle source of volunteer data in Ireland are the National College of Ireland surveys of volunteering carried out in the mid 1990’s, (Ruddle & O’Connor, 1993, Ruddle & Mulvihill, 1995, 1999). The Report of the National Committee on Volunteering “Tipping the Balance” compared these surveys and identified emerging trends, and I refer to them later. The National Economic and Social Forum also commissioned a survey on volunteering for the purposes of their Report “The Policy Implications of Social Capital” (NESF Report 28, 2003). In addition to this, The European Values Survey included some questions on volunteering in the 1990 and 1999 Surveys, (Halman, 2001), and is the main source of data for comparing levels of volunteering and social capital in Ireland with other European countries.

Since the first National College of Ireland Survey was carried out in 1993, the rate of volunteering has declined from 39% to 33% of the adult population in 1999. Out of a total population of 3.9 million people in 1999, this equates to approximately 1.287 million volunteers during this time. One reason given for this decline is the increasing demands placed on people’s time by modern society during this time. Lack of time is the most important reason cited for not volunteering in the National Collgee of Ireland Survey, 1999. Both surveys highlight that significantly more women volunteer their time than men, with 40% of women volunteering compared to 28% of men. Volunteering among men fell by 9% during the period between surveys, while the decline was 1% for women. Therefore the gap between men and women has widened. (National Committee on Volunteering, 2001, p.17) It is worth noting that the target group for the National College of Ireland Surveys were the general population, non-volunteers were also included, (Ruddle & Donohue, 1999) The survey carried out for the purposes of this research study focused solely on existing volunteers. The NESF Report estimates the overall level of community involvement or volunteering in 2001 was in the region of 20% of the whole population, (NESF, 2001).

The NESF also found that there was greater community engagement and volunteering among higher socio-economic groups, (Op.cit., p.50). Those with higher educational qualifications, among the higher socio-economic groups and with higher earnings are also more likely to volunteer. The surveys also suggest that those least likely to volunteer are those holding Primary Certificates in education, belonging to the lower socio-economic groups who are unemployed. The Report of the National Committee on Volunteering states that

“Young men, particularly those aged under 30 are least likely to volunteer."

As previously stated, Williams 2001, argues that the under-representation of disadvantaged groups as volunteers in the formal sector is reflective of their volunteering culture. Their voluntary efforts are concentrated in the informal sector, which is not covered by most research surveys on volunteering. If this issue is to be addressed consideration needs to be given to supporting and encouraging volunteering in the informal sector.

There is also the possibility that a potential pool of volunteers amongst those who are retired is not being sufficiently tapped at present. This group has always been under-represented, among volunteers and, like those who are in the lower socio-economic groupings, may need to have special measures and supports targeted at them so that they enabled to “hear” the message”, (Op.cit., p.52). Not only are these groupings less likely to volunteer, they also derive less from the experience of volunteering. The question of disenfranchisement and its relation to social disadvantage must be considered. Volunteering has a crucial role to play in the promotion of social inclusion and the development of a more equitable society. Given the positive contribution that being a volunteer can make to the individual, in addition to the benefits to society, consideration needs to be given at national and local level as to how small-scale community and voluntary groups can attract those least likely to volunteer, to their organisations.

The National College of Ireland Surveys also highlight the fact the South-east Region had by far the highest of volunteering in the country in 1997-, than any other region in the country, (Op. cit., p. 21). There is also no significant difference between men and women in the South-east. County Carlow is based in the South East, and yet there is still the perception among the community and voluntary organisations that there is a serious lack of volunteers in the County.

Another key issue when considering attracting and sustaining volunteers is what motivates people to volunteer. The main motivating factors, as identified in “Tipping the Balance” have changed over the period of carrying out the National College of Ireland Surveys.

Table: Reasons for volunteering 1992 to 1997-8

Reason	1992	14	1997-8	% Change
Belief in cause	8.4	2.5	15.4	7.0
Was asked to help	N/a	N/a	12.5	N/a
Wanted to help	28.8	25.5	11.5	(-17.3)
Wanted to be neighbourly	6.6	12.3	10.7	4.1
Knew/ liked	6.1	8.4	10.3	4.2
Spare time	3.4	4.2	7.9	4.5
Enjoyment	7.1	6.9	7.1	-

: National Committee on Volunteering, 2001, p22)

The main motivation to volunteer in 1992 was; “Wanted to help” at 28.8%. This was followed by “Belief in the cause” at a mere 8.4%. This changed dramatically over the next seven years with a 7% increase in those who are motivated by “Belief in the cause”, 15.4% in 1997-8. Other motivations in1997-8 included “Was asked to help” at 12.5%, “wanted to be neighbourly” at 10.7%, and for “enjoyment” at 7%, (no change since earlier surveys). “Wanted to help” as a primary motivation for volunteering had fallen by 17.3% to 11.5% in 1997-. This shows a shift towards from a “doing good” mentality to a more ideological bias. This may be due to a change in focus of many community and voluntary organisations over time, from primarily a type of service provider to an organisation that encourages local people to develop their own solutions to local issues and problems.

The benefits of volunteering were outlined clearly in the 1997-8 National College of Ireland Survey. In this survey respondents could choose more than one response, while in previous surveys only one option could be selected. Therefore, it is impossible to make any comparisons between the surveys. “Seeing results” is the most commonly identified benefit with 20.6% of reponses. “Doing good” and “meeting people” were also highlighted as benefits with 18.5% and 15.6% of responses respectively. Other benefits outlined include “enjoyment” at 13.1%, “being appreciated” – 6.9%, and “forget your own problems at 5.8%. (National Committee on Volunteering, 2001, p.25)

The National College of Ireland Surveys also looked at how volunteers became involved in voluntary activity. Social networks, family, friends and neighbours, are the most important way of finding out about volunteering and becoming involved in voluntary activity, (Ruddle and Mulvihill, 1999). Other routesidentified in order of importance include through organisational routes, for example membership of an organisation, meetings, etc., through the church or school, the mass media and paid employment.

As the National College of Ireland Surveys were targeted at the general population, including non-volunteers, the reasons as to why people do not volunteer could be examined. With regard to the barriers to volunteering, lack of time was cited as the main reason why people do not volunteer. This was followed by never having thought about it, never having been asked, the perception of being too old and not having transport, (National Committee on Volunteering, 2001). See Table in the Appendix for breakdown of responses given.

Ruddle & Mulvihill, 1999, outlined the main drawbacks of volunteering as identified by respondents to their survey “Reaching out: Charitable Giving and Volunteering in the Republic of Ireland, 1997-8 Survey”. The main drawback identified were the high expectations placed on volunteers, 26.3% of responses. Being taken for granted was identified by 21.1% of respondents, followed by the negative outlook of others in the organisation and an insufficient number of volunteers both with 15.8% of responses. Other drawbacksidentified included the time factor and a lack of government support

It is evident that volunteering in the community and voluntary sector makes a significant contribution to the Irish economy, both economically and socially. In many instances the community and voluntary sector are the sole and most appropriate provider of services in the community. The benefits of volunteering to the individual are also well documented. The sense of belonging, and enjoyment, highlighted by many as prime motivations for volunteering, highlights just how much people can get from being part of a community/ voluntary organisation. However, there are a number of challenges presented to the small-scale community and voluntary organisations if their efforts are to be sustainable. These challenges include recognising the positive contribution that volunteering can make to the development of social capital at local level, attracting under-represented sections of society to volunteer with locally based organisations and tackling the issue of lack of time available for volunteering. Other challenges include providing appropriate opportunities for potential volunteers with clear boundaries, including time limits, and looking at effective ways of advertising volunteer opportunities at local level. These and other challenges will be discussed in greater detail in Chapters 5 and 6.

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